Week 12: Chapter 11- Interior Building Systems

 Chapter 11

Interior Building Systems 

In Chapter 11, we learned how to understand sustainable energy control methods and types, incorporate appropriate security features into design projects, and apply good security design principles to projects. we also learned to differentiate between the multiple forms of vertical circulation in buildings and integrate systems furniture with a building’s structure. This chapter introduces several interior components that impact the design of a successful interior environment, including data, voice, and telecommunications systems, energy control systems, security systems, vertical circulation systems, and how furniture systems interface with the building itself.

Data, Voice, and Telecommunications

Telephone lines and Internet connections are a necessity of the modern interior environment. In addition, many clients also request wireless service, resulting in the need for careful placement of wireless routers to ensure equal service throughout a space.

Signal Types

Data and voice signals are captured and processed differently and require different types of wiring and installation. While data and video signals are encoded digitally (using binary coding consisting of 0s and 1s), voice is traditionally captured in an analog format consisting of a continuous signal in the form of an electromagnetic wave transmitted over a publicly switched telephone network. This is different from the noncontinuous and discrete form used for data. Further, different network types use different encoding schemes for the data they transmit. Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) differs from traditional telephone service in that it transmits the voice digitally over the Internet. Increasingly, individuals and consumers are switching from traditional copper-wired land-line telephone systems to VoIP-type systems. The ways in which wiring for these systems are integrated into the interior are the same as those discussed for electrical integration in Chapter 5.

Teleconferencing

With the need to accommodate today’s alternative working styles, many clients may want teleconferencing capabilities. 2020 has seen the unprecedented use of and need for the ability to telework using online meeting platforms such as ZOOM, WEBEX, and other meeting platforms. In an office or school setting, the room in which this takes place must accommodate a projection screen--more than likely a large plasma or LCD screen--and a calling device that will be centrally placed and through which people can call out to another site and speak. If the room setting is a conference room, phone jacks should be provided at the center of the conferencing table along with multiple outlets and a projection screen at one end of the room. An overhead liquid crystal display (LCD) projector should be available for wireless access from a laptop. Multiple lighting scenarios can be designed to support the multiple functions of such a space while also eliminating glare during projection times and sufficient lighting for other uses. Any exterior windows should have shading devices to further control any potential sources of glare.

Many of these same principles apply to working from home. Having an ergonomic chair, appropriate keyboard height, and desk relationship as well as proper lighting (daylight and electric) to ensure a clear image on screen has posed challenges for many when the pivot to teleworking was suddenly required in the early part of 2020. Bandwidth for data, voice, and streaming video suddenly became a focus for every teleworker, student, and teacher in this new virtual format. The need for a work environment at home also revealed the social inequities inherent in living conditions for people. Not everyone was able to have a dedicated workspace, not everyone had access to the internet. With public schools and libraries closed, many students found themselves unable to participate in a virtual learning environment.

Audio-Visual Systems

Projection Space Planning Requirements/ Visual Sight Lines

One of the primary issues when installing audio-visual systems is to make sure all occupants of the space are able to see the image being projected. Depending on the size of the space, this may involve staggering the seats (in a small space) or creating different seating levels (in a larger space). The floor can either be ramped or stepped to create many levels so that everyone has a clear view of the image area. Some rules of thumb for placing the screen include: the closest viewer should be no more than two times the height of the screen (two-and-a-half times is preferred), and the top of the screen should form an angle of no more than 30 degrees from the horizontal sight line of the viewer.

Acoustics

Another key component of the audio-visual environment is enabling the attendees to hear clearly. The size and shape of the space as well as the interior materials will greatly impact the ability of people to hear, as discussed in a previous chapter. Soundproofing between adjacent spaces is also critical.

Security

Since September 11, 2001, building security has become a pre-eminent issue in building design. Specific types of spaces require differing types of security controls. Examples of security-intensive interiors include hospitals (especially maternity and delivery wards), retail spaces, banks, courthouses, jails, Alzheimer's/dementia facilities, airports, and many other building types. Added to this list in recent years have been schools (high schools and middle schools), colleges, and universities. People expect a certain level of safety from the built environment. Very few project types do not require special security design. Security systems range from space-planning issues such as sight lines and barriers within a space to actual alarm and control systems such as metal detectors. Designers need to be aware of both types of security interventions.

Overarching Building Security

The most important aspect to controlling security is to know what the risks a specific building type and set of occupants might be facing. Having a secure perimeter and controlled access can then be designed based to the needs of the specific situation. Security cameras might be appropriate depending on the project type, location, and associated risk factors. Methods of key control, swipe card access, or perhaps forms of biometric control might then be needed for specific areas within a building or facility. Having a person who controls the main access, such as a receptionist or security personnel, can augment controlled access schemes. Rooms containing certain contents such as pharmaceuticals require additional security measures such as antitheft locks and alarms. Cyber security is another layer requiring security measures and protocols with associated policies and procedures. For all security measures it is important to train all building users in what the procedures are and how to use them properly.

Space-planning Issues and Visual Control

How a space is organized can contribute to the overall sense of security. In multiple applications, visual control of the environment needs to be included. For example, in a retail environment, the sales force needs to be able to monitor the cash registers and checkout area as well as entrances and exits. A variety of tag and alarm systems are used in larger retail settings. Similarly, hotel front-desk personnel need encompassing views of hotel lobbies and, in some cases, elevators. Elevator access can also be controlled through the use of key cards. In healthcare facilities, visual access to patient rooms contributes to proper nursing care. In areas with newborns, heightened security measures may be needed, including door alarms to supplement visual monitoring. Alzheimer's and dementia care facilities also benefit from the inclusion of door alarms to alert the staff when a patient has left the area unknowingly.

Security Control Systems

Security systems are divided into three basic types: perimeter systems, area or room systems, and surveillance systems. Perimeter systems are used to monitor a building perimeter and include devices such as magnetic contacts at windows and doors, glass-break protectors, and screen alarms. Area- or room-security measures include detectors (infrared, audio, ultrasonic, and microwave) as well as pressure sensors and photoelectric beams. Surveillance systems include access-control systems such as biometric controls systems using fingerprint, handprint, or retinal scans, card readers, numbered keyboards, and punch-card access such as those used in hotels.

Store Alarm Systems

Most retail stores have some type of store alarm system. Oftentimes, these are stationary antitheft detection devices coupled with tags or scan codes that create an audio sound and sometimes a visual alarm when a customer tries to leave the store without checking out.

Audio Security Alarms

Audio security alarms can be attached to fixed antitheft devices, doors, and other mechanisms, and are designed to alert personnel within the facility if someone is attempting to leave a facility with items that were not purchased or enter an area where they are not permitted. An example would be exiting through a fire exit.

Lockdown Systems

A lockdown system is used when it is desirable to lock down a specific area in the event of an emergency or after hours of operation. These are commonly used in prisons. Other applications include high schools and shopping malls. Oftentimes, both schools and malls have some areas that are used after common hours of operation. In this instance a variety of metal gates or other devices may be used to close off those areas that are closed.

Burglar Alarms

Burglar alarms are used in many building types. They vary widely in how they are installed and how they operate. Some may be wired only to doors and sound an alarm when a person enters the space. Others may be hardwired to a security company that is alerted in the event of a fire, unauthorized entry, and other situations. Some systems require authorized people to enter codes or a security scan card to disarm them. Others are manually disarmed.

Metal Detectors

Metal detectors are commonly used in several specific instances including airport security, government buildings, and courthouses. They may also be used in many other applications. The metal detector generates a pulse of energy that creates a magnetic field. Large pieces of metal cause the system to set off an audio and visual alarm alerting personnel to check for guns and other unauthorized metallic objects.

Wand Scanners

In the event a metal detector alarm goes off, the second level of security is often the wand scanner. These are hand-held devices that security personnel use to identify the actual location of the metal that has set off the alarm on a person’s physical body.

According to security expert David Shelton, “The best security is to remove opportunity” (2008). From an interior design perspective, this includes eliminating recessed alcoves and other places for people to hide or go unobserved. Access-control systems coupled with human resources can handle most internal security concerns. Mass alert systems can be used to notify building occupants of security breaches. All of these security measures are best integrated during the initial stages of the design process as they will impact space planning.

Elevators may also need specific security measures. For example, some floors might require key cards or biometric protocols for access to specific parts of a building. In some instances, a security person might have to control access to the elevators. For example, visitors might have to sign in and obtain a pass for additional building access such as the elevator.

Conveying Systems: Vertical Circulation

The way in which people and objects move from floor to floor or level to level within a space is through the use of different types of vertical circulation. These include stairs, elevators, escalators, and ladders.

Stairs

Stairs can be configured in several different ways. The layout of the stairs will determine the amount of space required on each floor to accommodate the stair.

Stair Design

The building codes regulate the specific sizes of stair treads and riser heights as well as the overall width of the stair for specific occupancies. A mathematical relationship between these two determines the comfort of the stairs. Some basic rules of thumb for comfortable stairs are as follows:

2 (riser height in inches) + tread (in inches) = 24-25

Example: 7-inch riser, 11-inch tread = 2(7) + 11 = 25 slope 30-35 degrees

Stairs are constructed from many materials. The three most common construction materials are wood, metal, and concrete.

Stair Terminology

The manner in which stairs are constructed is similar for wood and steel stairs, but the terminology for each of the constituent parts varies somewhat. The tread is the horizontal surface and the riser is the vertical surface located between treads. According to the International Building Code 2012, the minimum tread depth is 11 inches, while the minimum riser height is 4 inches with a maximum riser height of 7 inches. A landing is any intermediate horizontal surface within a run of stairs. The maximum rise of the stair is 12 feet before an intermediate landing is required. A carriage supports the treads while a stringer runs along either side. A stringer can either be cut or closed. A cut stringer follows the tread and riser, while a closed one is solid with the treads and risers hidden from view on the side.

Concrete stairs create a series of individual concrete members, each of which acts as a simple beam. As with all concrete beams, these concrete members must be reinforced with steel rebar.

The risers of a set of stairs may be either open or closed. Codes regulate which occupancy types can utilize open risers.

Guardrails versus Handrails

Guardrails are defined by the building code as the horizontal restraining railings that are located at landings and the top of stairs. Handrails follow the slope of the stairs themselves. Building codes require handrails to extend one tread length beyond the first tread for safety reasons. Codes also regulate the height of both guardrails and handrails. According to the 2012 International Building Code, the height of the handrail must be between 34 and 38 inches, while a guardrail must be 42 inches high. A guardrail is required anyplace where the change in floor height is more than 30 inches.

Elevators

Most multilevel buildings include some form of elevator. There are two basic types of elevators: hydraulic and electric (both with gears and gearless). Electric elevators require a rooftop mechanical room for the cable traction system that pulls the elevator up. This type of elevator is faster than a hydraulic elevator and is typically used in high-rise buildings (over 60 to 70 feet). When only a couple of floors exist, a hydraulic elevator is more commonly used. This type of elevator requires a piston and a space beneath the elevator for the piston to push the elevator up from floor to floor.

Recent developments in elevator technology have resulted in the introduction of the machine-roomless elevator. These gearless traction-type elevators are comparable in energy use to current standard electric elevators but use less metal and other materials resulting in less embodied energy. LED lighting can also reduce the amount of power needed for illumination. 1

Codes and Elevators

The International Building Code specifies a minimum elevator car size of 5 foot 3 inches deep by 6 foot 8 inches wide with a 3 foot 6 inch single slide door (3500-pound capacity).

Occupant-evacuation Elevators

With the most recent building code, certain types of elevators can be used for evacuation purposes. These elevators are called occupant-evacuation elevators. The lobby in which an occupant-evacuation elevator is located must be sized to accommodate 25 percent of the occupant load served by the lobby. Appropriate signage must notify building occupants of the elevators role in evacuation. The elevator must have an emergency recall button for use during such an event.

Escalators

An escalator is a mechanical stair that runs on a continuous belt. These are used to avoid having to climb a stair and can continuously accommodate users, unlike an elevator that passengers must wait for between uses. The basic components of an escalator include a structural truss, an upper module step and handrail drive system, a lower module, a top and bottom landing platform, a step chain, tracks, escalator steps and a handrail. The geometry of an escalator should not exceed a 30-degree angle. The standard stair widths are 24, 32 and 40 inches. 2 Escalator floor openings must be enclosed unless they include a draft and sprinkler water curtain. A draft and sprinkler water curtain is a ceiling feature located at the escalator floor opening that is 18 inches deep with sprinklers located no more than 6 feet apart around the perimeter and within 6 to 12 inches from the edge of the perimeter.

Ladders

Ladders are generally used in one of two ways within a building: in a residential building as access to a loft or attic space, or in a commercial space to access the rooftop. In either case, the ladder is not a public form of vertical circulation. The ladder is used because it requires far less floor space than any other form of vertical transportation and is also the least expensive option. Building code regulations for ladders include a 5-inch minimum tread depth and 20-inch minimum tread width with a maximum riser height of 9 1/2 inches. From the front of one tread to the front of the tread above, there must be a minimum projection of 8 1/2 inches.

Systems Furniture

Systems furniture provides flexibility within an open office space. By providing panel­based movable offices or benching configurations, interior spaces can be constantly reconfigured to address client needs. Additional benefits of the systems furniture approach include maximizing the number of occupants in a given square footage as well as creating opportunities for team-based interactive environments between and around cubicles.

Despite a nearly infinite array of configurations, systems furniture does require careful interface with the building itself. Getting electrical service to these systems is discussed in Chapter 5. Other concerns relate to coordinating layouts with lighting and existing fenestration. Ideally, desks should be cross-lit. This means, they should be situated perpendicular to the lighting layout if possible.

Interface with Building Shell

Although system furniture panels are thin, they must still be carefully integrated with a building’s fenestration to avoid running panels into windows or in front of windows. Additionally, panel placement in relation to electric lighting will impact user performance within a space as well as the acoustics within and between cubicles.

Systems furniture partitions must meet existing glazing at mullions and not in the middle of a glass panel. Lower partitions can contribute to achieving LEED CI credits for daylighting and views by allowing more people access to both. This often involves pulling closed offices and higher partitions away from window walls.

Sustainability

Many systems furniture manufacturers have developed sustainable solutions for interior spaces. The first fully cradle-to-cradle certified systems furniture system was the Answer system by Steelcase. The system includes multiple sustainable features:

• - Power solution is PVC-free and meets reduction of hazardous substances (RoHS) requirements and waste of electric and electronic equipment (WEEE) criteria. Lead, mercury, cadmium hexavalent chromium and polybrominated biphenyls are restricted by RoHS.
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• - The Think chair used with the system is 98 percent recyclable, whereas the Move side chairs are 99 percent recyclable. Both can be disassembled into their component parts in five minutes.
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• - The DesignTex panel fabrics are made of 100 percent recycled polyester.
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• - The panels themselves are 100 percent reusable and easy to disassemble.
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• - Metal finishes are 100 percent solvent-free, the system is polyvinyl chloride (PVC)-free, and the wood components are made from Forest Stewardship Council (FSC)- and Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI)-certified woods, finished with water-based top coats. 

Several additional sustainable furniture options are now offered by many furniture manufacturers.

Data and Voice for Systems Furniture

Because systems furniture panels are electrified, a source of power must be connected to the panel. As discussed in Chapter 4, this can be done in a variety of ways, including through the use of access flooring, power poles, wall receptacles, and other floor- based delivery mechanisms. Providing data and voice telecommunication lines presents a similar set of issues and solutions and these are often handled in the same way as electrical power. Many data connections are now also provided using wireless technology.

Signage and Wayfinding

Wayfinding describes the process by which a building provides visual cues to an occupant about how to navigate through the various spaces. This can be done in several ways, oftentimes through a combination of design decisions. These can include ceiling design elements as well as the shape and orientation of built-in furniture pieces and those that are movable. Floor patterns may be used as well as paint schemes to identify specific areas.

Related to wayfinding and equally important in helping people find their way through a building is the signage. An ideal signage solution alerts people to where they are and where they are going from the time they approach a building until they leave. Signage has also become a way to achieve LEED innovation credit. In this instance signage is used to educate building users about the sustainable features of a building.

One of the most important types of signage in a building is the exit signage. Exit signs are required by the building code, which also specifies their location and frequency of use. These signs are used to lead people safely to an exit in the event of an emergency. More information on their placement is available in Chapter 12.

Energy-Management Systems

An energy-management system controls all electrical usage through a centralized computer system designed to optimize energy use. This includes lighting, HVAC equipment, timers, dimmers, and other components. To create a truly sustainable building requires careful monitoring systems to regulate and control energy usage. A complete energy-control system will address HVAC and lighting.

Leed Id + C Rating System Version 4.1

Several credits under the LEED ID + C Rating System address energy monitoring and controls. Consisting of 38 possible points (out of 100), 24 of these are related to Optimizing Energy Performance. Advanced Energy metering can add another two points, Prerequisites require fundamental commissioning and verification of systems as well as minimum energy performance.

Blogging Assignment

Benching systems are great for today’s office, especially post-COVID. They’re open and flexible, making it easy for teams to collaborate and adapt to changing needs. Cubicles, on the other hand, give more privacy but can isolate people and reduce interactions. Benches are more space-efficient, creating an open feel, while cubicles can make an office feel cramped. As for culture, benches encourage teamwork and communication, whereas cubicles can make things feel more siloed. With health and safety a priority, benches can be harder to space out for social distancing, but barriers and hybrid work models can help. Cubicles do offer more separation, which is useful, but they can feel isolating. Looking ahead, the future of office design will be about flexibility, collaboration, and health. Benches fit this shift better, especially with more hybrid work and a focus on sustainability.

https://www.fluidconcepts.ca/blogs/truss-blogs/cubicles-vs-benching-systems-spotting-the-differences#:~:text=In%20contrast%20to%20the%20compartmentalized,them%20into%20a%20single%20unit.